Summary of Self-determination
This paper presents a review of self-determination as a positive youth development construct. The definition and concept of the concept are examined from the perspective of self-determination theory and functional theory of self-determination. Theories of self-determination are examined from the perspective of motivation and skill enhancement. Factors that contribute to self-determination, such as autonomy-supportive teaching and parenting styles, culture, the efficacy of intervention programs, and the educational benefits of self-determination for students are discussed. Strategies for promoting self-determination in the educational context and the implications for further research and practice are discussed.
1. Introduction of Self-determination
Adolescence is a critical stage of life during which young people face physical, psychological, intellectual, and emotional concerns and challenges, search for self-identity, explore new roles, and deal with the transition to secondary school and afterwards from education to employment and life. Partition and separation are processes that teenagers go through. Gaining independence and autonomy, setting personal goals, and making plans, and achieving values and morals are developmental tasks that all adolescents have to realize. Being self-determined is a developmental task that all young people face and is relevant to the development of their whole person.
2. Definition of Self Determination
Self-determination, as a psychological construct, refers to voluntary actions performed by people based on their will, and self-determined behavior comes from deliberate, conscious choices and decisions. The concept and definition of self-determination varies according to its theoretical leanings. For instance, the self-determination theory (SDT) put out by Deci and Ryan focuses on the motivational side of self-determination and the impact that autonomy and motivation of one’s own choosing have on learning and education. “The capacity to select and to have options that… decide one’s conduct” is the definition of self-determination.
In special education for youth and adults with disabilities, researchers focus more on the development of the cognitive, social, and behavioral components that are the temperamental characteristics necessary for self-determined behavior. Wehmeyer [5], for example, refers to self-determined behavior as “voluntary actions that enable one to act as the major cause of one’s problems and to preserve or raise one’s standard of living. ” Is”. The abilities, information, and convictions that support behavior that is goal-directed, self-regulated, and autonomous are referred to as self-determination.
In the context of positive youth development, self-determination is defined as “the ability to think for oneself and take action in line with that idea” (p. 105) [7]. Youth’s self-determination is promoted through positive youth development programs that aim to promote autonomy, independent thinking, self-advocacy, empowerment of young people and their ability to live by values and standards. Such a concept is in line with the emergence of positive psychology which emphasizes on fostering human strengths.
In other words, self-determined people take the initiative, lead their own lives, and make things happen. Self-determination refers to young people’s capacity for voluntary action and their independence in making decisions, both of which are fostered in enabling social contexts.
2.1. Self Determination from a Human Motivation Perspective
2.1.1. Theoretical Framework of Self-determination
SDT is based on the assumption that human individuals are active and growth-oriented agents, with a tendency to integrate social norms and practices, with a tendency to organize and initiate their actions within the context of their values and interests, internally. are motivated to pursue personal goals, and strive to master the environment. The development of these tendencies and traits depends on the type of support they receive from the social environment, which may promote or weaken their intrinsic motivation and internalization.
SDT holds that the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs, namely competence, belongingness and autonomy, are relevant to the optimal development and functioning of human individuals. Competence refers to the feeling of being able to meet the demands of the environment and meet daily challenges. Such need can be met by experiences of implementing and achieving desired goals and achieving effective results. Autonomy is about being voluntary and self-supporting in one’s behavior and having the control to make choices at will. The need for autonomy is different from being independent, selfish and having freedom of choice. Essential elements that facilitate autonomy include self-awareness of one’s intentions, feelings, and external demands, active participation, and the possibility of self-direction and making choices. Satisfaction of the need for autonomy at home and in the school environment is likely to facilitate the development of intrinsic motivation and internalization [2]. Furthermore, the requirements for both competence and autonomy are essential and necessary to maintain intrinsic motivation. Relatedness is about the need to achieve closeness, connectedness, and a sense of belonging with others. Satisfaction of the need for belonging will provide emotional security for further exploration. Feelings of closeness with significant others, such as parents and teachers, will facilitate the process of internalization of values, social norms, and practice. Therefore, sociocultural relatedness is relevant to internalization and subsequent motivation and self-regulation to engage in actions demanded by others.
2.1.2. Self-determination and academic results
According to research, fostering students’ psychological requirements for competence, relatedness, and autonomy promotes self-regulated learning, academic success, and overall wellbeing. More enjoyable learning experiences are correlated with higher degrees of autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Autonomic motivation is closely related to academic success. Young people who are autonomous and regulated by intrinsic motivation experience more positive educational outcomes in schools. For instance, pupils who were independently driven demonstrated academic success and had greater academic accomplishment, self-esteem, perceived competence, personal control, and creativity. They also had a more flexible approach to learning. In comparison to their peers whose teachers were controlling, students who had teachers who supported their autonomy had higher intrinsic motivation, higher competence and self-esteem, greater interest in their lessons, greater creativity, flexibility in thinking and conceptual understanding, and more active participation in information processing. Autonomic motivation was also found to be associated with psychological well-being. Research studies have shown that autonomously motivated students reported more positive affect and emotions, enjoyed academic work more, experienced greater life and school satisfaction, and experienced less ill-being, such as depression. Furthermore, higher autonomy in schools is associated with lower dropout rates, lower levels of anxiety, and more positive coping strategies. Students whose environment supports their needs have a greater tendency to engage in learning, which fosters hope.
2.1.3. Factors contributing to the development of self-determination
Parenting Styles –
According to SDT, social contexts that are responsive and supportive can facilitate young people to engage in self-initiative, self-regulated and voluntary behavior. In the context of the family, parents play a very important role in cultivating self-determination. First, parents who meet their children’s needs for autonomy contribute to their own self-regulation and motivation. Research studies have provided evidence that parents who are autonomously supportive,
They provide choices and choices to their children and allow them to explore and enact according to their own interests and values [20,21]. By showing genuine interest in their children’s needs and being empathetic to their thoughts and perspectives[22], parents help their children develop themselves as active and voluntary agents. Research by Soenens and Weinsteinkiste showed that parental autonomy support has significantly contributed to self-determination in the fields of school and peer relationships. On the other hand, a controlling parenting style that focuses on outcome rather than process and controlling techniques undermines children’s intrinsic motivation and internalization [23,24]. Second, the provision of structure by parents, such as giving explicit expectations about behavior, promotes children’s competence, an understanding of how to achieve success, and perceived personal control [24]. Third, parental involvement facilitates children’s achieving motivation, internalization of values, and students’ academic self-regulation [24,25]. A caring and supportive home environment also satisfies children’s needs for belonging. In short, parental autonomy support, structure, and involvement is relevant to fostering autonomous self-regulation in children.
Related Reading : What is The Self Determination Theory?
Teacher autonomy-supportive style of Self-determination
SDT suggests that teacher autonomy support and structure are relevant to helping students achieve optimal learning. Autonomy support and structure, although separate, are student-centered and positively related. Teachers who provide structure and guidelines to students tend to have more autonomy-supportive styles [26]. Research studies have found positive associations between teacher autonomy support, and students’ academic self-determination, school engagement, and school adjustment [9]. Autonomy-supportive teachers, similar to autonomy-supportive parents, contribute to students’ self-determination through offering options, providing arguments for choices, empathizing with students’ perspectives, and in the classroom environment. reduce the use of controlling language [26]. Autonomy-supportive teachers also identify, cultivate, and develop students’ intrinsic motivational resources [27]. These practices provide students with the opportunity to pursue personal goals and interests, and to meet their needs for autonomy and competence.
In addition, an autonomy-supportive learning environment contributes to increasing students’ perceived competence, interest, and enjoyment. Students with low autonomy levels especially benefit in autonomy-supportive environments, where they learn to be more autonomous and self-regulated, which leads to improved learning performance.
Culture and self-determination
SDT believes that the needs for competence, autonomy and belonging are innate, universal, and consistent. Therefore, the fulfillment of these needs contributes to the optimal functioning of all individuals across cultures and societies. SDT emphasizes that people’s interpretations of their autonomous experiences, whether good or unpleasant, supportive, or withholding, are shaped by their society [3]. Within cultures with various values, people may express their desires for competence, autonomy, and relatedness in different ways. They are aware of the advantages of autonomy and the drawbacks of non-autonomy, nevertheless, as cultural realities. Cross-cultural psychologists contend that Western cultural norms have an impact on concepts of self-determination and autonomy. For example, autonomy is considered a retained value in individualistic societies , reflecting an independent view of oneself [31]. Therefore, the need for autonomy is in conflict with the need for relatedness and interdependent relationships nurtured in collectivist societies [32,33]. However, other researchers argue that autonomy from the SDT perspective is about being voluntary in one’s actions, as distinct from claiming independence from significant others and having freedom of choices. In a collectivist culture, the need for autonomy can be met through the internalization of the demands of others and the self-support of alternatives [10]. A recent research by Hui et al showed that these three psychological needs are relevant to academic motivation in the East as well as the West. Ability was found to be the most important predictor of academic motivation among Chinese students. After competence, relatedness with parents was dominant in predicting academic motivation. Autonomy had a strong positive association with relatedness, revealing that the more autonomous support students received from their parents, the greater the connection they felt with their parents. The advantages of an adaptable learning strategy and autonomous academic motivation for academic performance and wellbeing were also demonstrated in a research involving Chinese students from the People’s Republic of China.
2.2. Self-determination from the perspective of skill enhancement
2.2.1. Theoretical Framework and Approach
According to the functional theory of self-determination, people act as causal agents that make things happen. Self-determined actions are related to the function they serve. Essential characteristics of self-determined actions include that the individual acts autonomously and in a self-realized manner, that the behavior is self-regulated, and that the act is a self-initiated response to events in a psychologically empowering manner. is [35]. As the functional theory of self-determination adopts a person–environment interaction framework in its concept, the development of self-determination is influenced by both individual temperament characteristics as well as environmental experiences. The ecological model of self-determination, on the other hand, considers gaining personal control over one’s life as the ultimate goal of self-determination. According to this model, the skills, knowledge and beliefs that an individual holds engage with the environment to make it easier to achieve objectives and get desired results.
Promoting self-determination for youth with disabilities has been a major concern. Research studies have suggested that youth with disabilities lack the skills, knowledge and beliefs that are important for their self-determination. In addition, students with disabilities tend to be less self-determined than their peers without disabilities. Therefore, promoting self-determination has been a major issue in special education and has become a best practice in secondary education and transition service [38].
Positive youth development has greatly benefited in recent years from the rise of positive psychology. The positive youth development method places a strong emphasis on discovering young people’s talents and skills. It is based on developmental theories including Erikson’s identity development theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory. The methods are grounded on humanistic psychology, which places an emphasis on each person’s potential and ability. It is clear that humanistic theories share concepts with those based on self-determination. For instance, both place emphasis on people’s subjective knowledge of themselves and others, as well as their ability for self-actualization and freedom of choice. Self-determination is one of fifteen psychological constructs to be taught as part of skill development for youth with or without disability positive youth development programs and Project PATHS in Hong Kong schools.
2.2.2. Factors contributing to the self-determination of students with disabilities
The development of self-determination, according to functional theory, is influenced by an individual’s potential, that is, by personal characteristics and environmental factors and instructional experiences. Regarding individual characteristics, intelligence was found to be positively correlated with self-determination, with individuals high in IQ scores having higher self-determination scores.
Research examining the effect of gender on self-determination has been limited and has drawn mixed conclusions. Wehmeyer and Garner’s study did not find that gender was important. However, other studies found gender to have an effect on self-determination (Notta et al. It has been discovered that choosing opportunity and not intelligence is the main predictor of self-determination for persons with intellectual impairments in terms of surviving and finding job. Environments have a role in determining one’s level of self-determination; individuals who live in community-based settings have more autonomy and opportunity for choice, whereas those who live in confined settings have lower levels of self-determination. In a recent study, Lee et al. discovered that temperamental, instructional, and cognitive characteristics were better predictors of students’ self-determination than individual variables including age, gender, and IQ level. Strong determinants of students’ willpower were self-efficacy and result expectations, student-directed transition planning education, and students’ prior transition planning knowledge.
Environmental factors that contribute to self-determination include the provision of self-determined role models, self-determination skills instruction and support, opportunities for decision-making choices, positive communication patterns within school institutions and personal relationships, and student support by teachers and peers]. In addition, developing supportive relationships with others, including teachers and peers, contributes to supporting self-determination. A sense of belonging gives young people the security to be self-determined. Therefore, supportive relationships encouraged by peer support programs, such as peer tutoring, peer counseling, help promote self-determination.
2.2.3. Intervention programs to promote self-determination
Research has shown that the possession of self-determination skills is associated with better educational outcomes in school and postschool success for youth and adults with disabilities. For example, improved self-determination skills were critical to academic performance and success and contributed to increased classroom participation and postsecondary participation. Self-determination skills lead to better outcomes in independence and employability as well as quality of life.
Therefore, self-determination as a construct becomes an important aspect in education and is widely used in education programs for students with disabilities. To improve their capacity for self-determination, several models and strategies have been created. The majority of intervention programmes focus on developing students’ decision-making, choice-making, self-advocacy, self-efficacy, self-awareness, and goal- and plan-evaluation abilities.
For example, the Stages of Self-Determination Curriculum was developed based on five key components: Know Yourself, Value Yourself, Plan, Act, Experience Results, and Learn. Know Yourself and Value Yourself, the first two elements, are about promoting self-awareness and self-knowledge. ACT and component planning are about learning particular abilities. Experience Results Study More Evaluation and success celebration are discussed in goals and plans. This course is founded on the idea that having what one wants and having the inner knowledge and abilities one needs to succeed in one’s objectives are crucial for self-determination. Personal characteristics such as self-awareness are the building blocks for self-determination, whereas the ability to set goals is the result of self-determination. Environmental factors, such as the opportunity to make choices and the attitudes of others, also contribute to self-determination. This is an example of a comprehensive curriculum that can be used by students with disabilities and non-secondary students. It is possible to combine self-determination knowledge and abilities across topic areas to benefit students at all academic levels.
By guiding students through a three-stage instructional process of goal establishing, taking action, and goals or plan altering, the self-determined learning model of teaching proposed by Wehmeyer et al. seeks to improve the components of self-determination. Students develop their problem-solving skills at each level by critically presenting and responding to a set of four questions, defining objectives to suit their requirements, adjusting their own chosen goals, applying, and modifying assignments to fit their plans. Teachers provide a set of objectives for each question and educational support at each stage to facilitate students to become self-directed learners. Therefore, students act as active agents in making and taking decisions and choices. This approach to teaching self-regulated problem solving can be applied in a wide range of content areas for students with and without disabilities. The program had a positive impact on students’ self-regulation and achievement of self-selected goals.
Since acquiring self-determination skills allows all adolescents, with or without disabilities, to be self-directed learners with personal control of their lives, curriculum that aims to enhance the components of self-determination outlined above may be included in the general curriculum. can be incorporated so that all students can be benefited. Furthermore, the inclusion of youth with disabilities in mainstream education is a global trend. The deliberate infusion of self-determination instruction and development into the common curriculum would allow students with disabilities to access interventions in inclusive classrooms.
3. Strategies to Promote Self-Determination
Theoretical approaches such as SDT, functional theory and ecological models all consider the social context to be an important factor in facilitating or reducing self-determination. School is an important social context where students’ self-determination can be fostered as a strength. All pupils, regardless of whether they have impairments, should have self-determination promotion as their main educational objective. SDT contends that when students’ psychological requirements for autonomy, competence, and belonging are met in the classroom, they are better equipped to internalise their motivation and engage in self-regulated learning. It is important to provide children the chance to acquire and practise skills so they may become self-regulated learners.
3.1. Ways to facilitate self-determination skills through education programs
Adolescents, with or without disabilities, would benefit from deliberate interventions that promote self-determination [1,47]. Curriculum that aims to enhance self-determination skills may include activities to develop skills in goal setting, planning, evaluation and monitoring, and choice making. The course units on self-determination of Project PATHS are an example of systematically developing self-determination skills through a formal educational curriculum. In addition, learning tasks can be structured to encourage possibilities-exploration, appropriate risk-taking, and problem-solving. In addition, activities that aim to enhance students’ self-esteem and self-confidence, an appreciation of their strengths and knowledge of their limitations, and promote self-advocacy, will further facilitate students’ self-understanding and communication. Students’ personal control over their learning is expected to develop as they master the self-regulation abilities of decision-making, problem-solving, and action planning. They become more independent learners and self-determined people because they are better able to apply self-determination skills to their personal goals. Additionally, schools may encourage self-determination by including self-determination skills components into the general curriculum, with a focus on assisting students in identifying their own objectives and using self-determination skills in action planning and assessment. Such intentional initiatives to support self-determination are consistent with the theory of positive youth development, which holds that by assisting all kids in developing their talents and assets, they will benefit from a decrease in risky behaviour.
3.2. Ways to promote an autonomous supportive environment
Studies have indicated that encouraging students’ perceived autonomy in the classroom results in improved academic performance [11]. Students will be more engaged in learning, which has an impact on their psychological well-being, if they feel that their learning environment supports their requirements for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Additionally, instructors who promote their own autonomy report higher levels of personal success, greater fulfilment of their psychological needs, and lower levels of emotional stress. The fulfilment of the need for belonging will result from a student-directed learning environment where kids feel valued and connected with their instructors and classmates.
Research studies have shown that the following strategies are important in fostering an autonomously supportive classroom environment, which helps to nurture students’ internal motivational resources. First, teachers can consider, incorporate, and prioritize students’ perspectives in learning activities, welcome the way students feel, think, and act, and accept that students have autonomous self-regulation and self-regulation. Able to set personal goals. This would mean that teachers need to find ways to engage students’ interests and present tasks that will challenge their potential. Second, it’s crucial to explain and support the value of specific actions in order to help pupils internalize them and make a greater effort to participate. When requesting students to comply with their request, it’s crucial to emphasize the advantages of self-development (i.e., internal objectives) as opposed to social standing and material achievement (i.e., external goals). Third, giving kids structure and direction through things like classroom objectives and encouraging comments is important for assisting them in understanding the connection between their actions and results. Fourth, teachers should set up scenarios where students may practice taking chances, making decisions, and analyzing their choices and behaviors. Fifth, patience and trust are essential in allowing students to learn at their own pace In order to do this, teachers will need to hear students out, assist them when necessary, promote student initiative, and allot time for independent study. Sixth, as stated by SDT, improving students’ relationships with instructors depends on recognizing and influencing students’ unfavorable sentiments and letting students know that teachers truly like, respect, and cherish them. In order to satisfy their psychological desire for relatedness, the done is crucial. Last but not least, promoting self-determination depends on providing peer support to develop supportive connections and peers and instructors to serve as role models.
4. Forward Direction for Research and Practice in Self-Determination
Chambers et al point out the following four areas that need further research and practice to promote self-determination. First, in the area of teacher training and support, teachers need to be prepared to acquire the knowledge and skills to attend to their students’ psychological needs for competence, relatedness and autonomy, the component skills of self-determination, and instruction strategies. -Promoting a supportive classroom environment and facilitating students to become self-regulated learners. This will have implications for teacher education training at both pre-service and in-service levels. Further research may be directed to examine the needs and competence of teachers in promoting self-determination. Second, there is a need for systematic implementation strategies in schools. While self-determination skills and components can be taught through specialized programs, integrating these course packages with the general curriculum has the advantage of providing access to students with or without disabilities. Such curriculum infusion has the advantage of promoting self-determination as a whole-school approach to guidance for the development of the whole person of all students [58]. Further research may examine the effectiveness of the infusion of self-determination in the academic curriculum. Third, fostering self-determination requires parental involvement, as an autonomous parenting attitude is related to children’s adjustment to school [23]. Strategies in promoting self-regulated learning and autonomy-supportive environments can be disseminated to parents through workshops, seminars and school-home collaboration projects. In addition, component skills in self-determination, such as identifying goals, creating action plans and evaluating children, can be offered to parents. Research may further examine the effectiveness of this form of family involvement. Finally, as self-determination is a developmental task, fostering self-determination skills needs to begin early in primary schools.
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